Lars Perner, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of Clinical Marketing
Deparment of Marketing,
Marshall School of Business
University of Southern California,
Los Angeles, CA 90089-0443, USA
(213) 740-7127 Cell: (760) 412-0154
perner@marshall.usc.edu
Marketing Basics
Consumer Behavior
International Business
Channels/Distribution
Links Questions and Answer
Product and Logistics
Trends in International Logistics. Several trends in international logistics have become evident over the last two decades. On the economic side, exchange rates have ceased to be as significant a factor as they were previously because more demanding product specifications have made it difficult for firms to switch suppliers, at least for relatively specialized products. On the other hand, for commodities (such as steel), which are made around the World, over-capacity often exists for a variety of reasons (e.g., some countries such as Russia and Brazil are currently experiencing bad economic periods with a resultant shrinkage in domestic demand) and since different suppliers’ products can easily be substituted for those of others, price pressure becomes intense. Note that in very capital intensive industries, firms may be forced to sell at a price not much higher than the variable costs of production, which may lead to charges of "dumping" in foreign markets. Additional trends include improved infrastructure (roads, airports, and other transportation facilities as well as communications opportunities) and a subsequent move toward global manufacturing to take advantage of areas of lower labor cost as well as economies of scale. Finally, because of increased recognition of the importance of quality and cost effective procurement, purchasing managers have assumed a greater role.
Product Need Satisfaction. We often take for granted the "obvious" need that products seem to fill in our own culture; however, functions served may be very different in others—for example, while cars have a large transportation role in the U.S., they are impractical to drive in Japan, and thus cars there serve more of a role of being a status symbol or providing for individual indulgence. In the U.S., fast food and instant drinks such as Tang are intended for convenience; elsewhere, they may represent more of a treat. Thus, it is important to examine through marketing research consumers’ true motives, desires, and expectations in buying a product.
Approaches to Product Introduction. Firms face a choice of alternatives in marketing their products across markets. An extreme strategy involves customization, whereby the firm introduces a unique product in each country, usually with the belief tastes differ so much between countries that it is necessary more or less to start from "scratch" in creating a product for each market. On the other extreme, standardization involves making one global product in the belief the same product can be sold across markets without significant modification—e.g., Intel microprocessors are the same regardless of the country in which they are sold. Finally, in most cases firms will resort to some kind of adaptation, whereby a common product is modified to some extent when moved between some markets—e.g., in the United States, where fuel is relatively less expensive, many cars have larger engines than their comparable models in Europe and Asia; however, much of the design is similar or identical, so some economies are achieved. Similarly, while Kentucky Fried Chicken serves much the same chicken with the eleven herbs and spices in Japan, a lesser amount of sugar is used in the potato salad, and fries are substituted for mashed potatoes.
There are certain benefits to standardization. Firms that produce a global product can obtain economies of scale in manufacturing, and higher quantities produced also lead to a faster advancement along the experience curve. Further, it is more feasible to establish a global brand as less confusion will occur when consumers travel across countries and see the same product. On the down side, there may be significant differences in desires between cultures and physical environments—e.g., software sold in the U.S. and Europe will often utter a "beep" to alert the user when a mistake has been made; however, in Asia, where office workers are often seated closely together, this could cause embarrassment.
Adaptations come in several forms. Mandatory adaptations involve changes that have to be made before the product can be used—e.g., appliances made for the U.S. and Europe must run on different voltages, and a major problem was experienced in the European Union when hoses for restaurant frying machines could not simultaneously meet the legal requirements of different countries. "Discretionary" changes are changes that do not have to be made before a product can be introduced (e.g., there is nothing to prevent an American firm from introducing an overly sweet soft drink into the Japanese market), although products may face poor sales if such changes are not made. Discretionary changes may also involve cultural adaptations—e.g., in Sesame Street, the Big Bird became the Big Camel in Saudi Arabia.
Another distinction involves physical product vs. communication adaptations. In order for gasoline to be effective in high altitude regions, its octane must be higher, but it can be promoted much the same way. On the other hand, while the same bicycle might be sold in China and the U.S., it might be positioned as a serious means of transportation in the former and as a recreational tool in the latter. In some cases, products may not need to be adapted in either way (e.g., industrial equipment), while in other cases, it might have to be adapted in both (e.g., greeting cards, where the both occasions, language, and motivations for sending differ). Finally, a market may exist abroad for a product which has no analogue at home—e.g., hand-powered washing machines.
Branding. While Americans seem to be comfortable with category specific brands, this is not the case for Asian consumers. American firms observed that their products would be closely examined by Japanese consumers who could not find a major brand name on the packages, which was required as a sign of quality. Note that Japanese keiretsus span and use their brand name across multiple industries—e.g., Mitsubishi, among other things, sells food, automobiles, electronics, and heavy construction equipment.
The International Product Life Cycle (PLC). Consumers in different countries differ in the speed with which they adopt new products, in part for economic reasons (fewer Malaysian than American consumers can afford to buy VCRs) and in part because of attitudes toward new products (pharmaceuticals upset the power afforded to traditional faith healers, for example). Thus, it may be possible, when one market has been saturated, to continue growth in another market—e.g., while somewhere between one third and one half of American homes now contain a computer, the corresponding figures for even Europe and Japan are much lower and thus, many computer manufacturers see greater growth potential there. Note that expensive capital equipment may also cycle between countries—e.g., airlines in economically developed countries will often buy the newest and most desired aircraft and sell off older ones to their counterparts in developing countries. While in developed countries, "three part" canning machines that solder on the bottom with lead are unacceptable for health reasons, they have found a market in developing countries.
Diffusion of innovation. Good new innovations often do not spread as quickly as one might expect—e.g., although the technology for microwave ovens has existed since the 1950s, they really did not take off in the United States until the late seventies or early eighties, and their penetration is much lower in most other countries. The typewriter, telephone answering machines, and cellular phones also existed for a long time before they were widely adopted.
Certain characteristics of products make them more or less likely to spread. One factor is relative advantage. While a computer offers a huge advantage over a typewriter, for example, the added gain from having an electric typewriter over a manual one was much smaller. Another issue is compatibility, both in the social and physical sense. A major problem with the personal computer was that it could not read the manual files that firms had maintained, and birth control programs are resisted in many countries due to conflicts with religious values. Complexity refers to how difficult a new product is to use—e.g., some people have resisted getting computers because learning to use them takes time. Trialability refers to the extent to which one can examine the merits of a new product without having to commit a huge financial or personal investment—e.g., it is relatively easy to try a restaurant with a new ethnic cuisine, but investing in a global positioning navigation system is riskier since this has to be bought and installed in one’s car before the consumer can determine whether it is worthwhile in practice. Finally, observability refers to the extent to which consumers can readily see others using the product—e.g., people who do not have ATM cards or cellular phones can easily see the convenience that other people experience using them; on the other hand, VCRs are mostly used in people’s homes, and thus only an owner’s close friends would be likely to see it.
At the societal level, several factors influence the spread of an innovation. Not surprisingly, cosmopolitanism, the extent to which a country is connected to other cultures, is useful. Innovations are more likely to spread where there is a higher percentage of women in the work force; these women both have more economic power and are able to see other people use the products and/or discuss them. Modernity refers to the extent to which a culture values "progress." In the U.S., "new and improved" is considered highly attractive; in more traditional countries, their potential for disruption cause new products to be seen with more skepticism. Although U.S. consumers appear to adopt new products more quickly than those of other countries, we actually score lower on homiphily, the extent to which consumers are relatively similar to each other, and physical distance, where consumers who are more spread out are less likely to interact with other users of the product. Japan, which ranks second only to the U.S., on the other hand, scores very well on these latter two factors.
Pricing
Definition. Price can best be defined in ratio terms, giving the equation
resources given up
price = ———————————————
goods received
This implies that there are several ways that the price can be changed:
 | "Sticker" price changes—the most obvious way to change the price is the price tag— you get the same thing, but for a different (usually larger) amount of money. |
| Change quantity. Often, consumers respond unfavorably to an increased sticker price, and changes in quantity are sometimes noticed less—e.g., in the 1970s, the wholesale cost of chocolate increased dramatically, and candy manufacturers responded by making smaller candy bars. Note that, for cash flow reasons, consumers in less affluent countries may need to buy smaller packages at any one time (e.g., forking out the money for a large tube of toothpaste is no big deal for most American families, but it introduces a greater strain on the budget of a family closer to the subsistence level). |
| Change quality. Another way candy manufacturers have effectively increased prices is through a reduction in quality. In a candy bar, the "gooey" stuff is much cheaper than chocolate. It is frequently tempting for foreign licensees of a major brand name to use inferior ingredients. |
| Change terms. In the old days, most software manufacturers provided free support for their programs—it used to be possible to call the WordPerfect Corporation on an 800 number to get free help. Nowadays, you either have to call a 900 number or have a credit card handy to get help from many software makers. Another way to change terms is to do away with favorable financing terms. |
Reference Prices. Consumers often develop internal reference prices, or expectations about what something should cost, based mostly on their experience. Most drivers with long commutes develop a good feeling of what gasoline should cost, and can tell a bargain or a ripoff.
Reference prices are more likely to be more precise for frequently purchased and highly visible products. Therefore, retailers very often promote soft drinks, since consumers tend to have a good idea of prices and these products are quite visible. The trick, then, is to be more expensive on products where price expectations are muddier.
Marketers often try to influence people's price perceptions through the use of external reference prices—indicators given to the consumer as to how much something should cost. Examples include:
| Manufacturer's Suggested Retail Price (MSRP). This is often pure fiction. The suggested retail prices in certain categories are deliberately set so high that even full service retailers can sell at a "discount." Thus, although the consumer may contrast the offering price against the MSRP, this latter figure is quite misleading. |
| "SALE! Now $2.99; Regular Price $5.00." For this strategy to be used legally in most countries, the claim must be true (consistency of enforcement in some countries is, of course, another matter). However, certain products are put on sale so frequently that the "regular" price is meaningless. In the early 1990s, Sears was reported to sell some 55% of its merchandise on sale. |
| "WAS $10.00, now $6.99." |
| "Sold elsewhere for $150.00; our price: $99.99." |
Reference prices have significant international implications. While marketers may choose to introduce a product at a low price in order to induce trial, which is useful in a new market where the penetration of a product is low, this may have serious repercussions as consumers may develop a low reference price and may thus resist paying higher prices in the future.
Selected International Pricing Issues. In some cultures, particularly where retail stores are smaller and the buyer has the opportunity to interact with the owner, bargaining may be more common, and it may thus be more difficult for the manufacturer to influence retail level pricing.
Two phenomena may occur when products are sold in disparate markets. When a product is exported, price escalation, whereby the product dramatically increases in price in the export market, is likely to take place. This usually occurs because a longer distribution chain is necessary and because smaller quantities sold through this route will usually not allow for economies of scale. "Gray" markets occur when products are diverted from one market in which they are cheaper to another one where prices are higher—e.g., Luis Vuitton bags were significantly more expensive in Japan than in France, since the profit maximizing price in Japan was higher and thus bags would be bought in France and shipped to Japan for resale. The manufacturer therefore imposed quantity limits on buyers. Since these quantity limits were circumvented by enterprising exchange students who were recruited to buy their quota on a daily basis, prices eventually had to be lowered in Japan to make the practice of diversion unattractive. Where the local government imposes price controls, a firm may find the market profitable to enter nevertheless since revenues from the new market only have to cover marginal costs. However, products may then be attractive to divert to countries without such controls.
Transfer pricing involves what one subsidiary will charge another for products or components supplied for use in another country. Firms will often try to charge high prices to subsidiaries in countries with high taxes so that the income earned there will be minimized.
Antitrust laws are relevant in pricing decisions, and anti-dumping regulations are especially noteworthy. In general, it is illegal to sell a product below your cost of production, which may make a penetration pricing entry strategy infeasible. Japan has actively lobbied the World Trade Organization (WTO) to relax its regulations, which generally require firms to price no lower than their average fully absorbed cost (which incorporates both variable and fixed costs).
Alternatives to "hard" currency deals. Buyers in some countries do not have ready access to convertible currency, and governments will often try limit firms’ ability to spend money abroad. Thus, some firms have been forced into non-cash deals. In barter, the seller takes payment in some product produced in the buying country—e.g., Lockheed (back when it was an independent firm) took Spanish wine in return for aircraft, and sellers to Eastern Europe have taken their payment in ham. An offset contract is somewhat more flexible in that the buyer can get paid but instead has to buy, or cause others to buy, products for a certain value within a specified period of time.
Psychological issues: Most pricing research has been done on North Americans, and this raises serious problems of generalizability. Americans are used to sales, for example, while consumers in countries where goods are more scarce may attribute a sale to low quality rather than a desire to gain market share. There is some evidence that perceived price quality relationships are quite high in Britain and Japan (thus, discount stores have had difficulty there), while in developing countries, there is less trust in the market. Cultural differences may influence the extent of effort put into evaluating deals (potentially impacting the effectiveness of odd-even pricing and promotion signaling). The fact that consumers in some economies are usually paid weekly, as opposed to biweekly or monthly, may influence the effectiveness of framing attempts—"a dollar a day" is a much bigger chunk from a weekly than a monthly paycheck.
Promotion
Promotional tools. Numerous tools can be used to influence consumer purchases:
| Advertising—in or on newspapers, radio, television, billboards, busses, taxis, or the Internet. |
| Price promotions—products are being made available temporarily as at a lower price, or some premium (e.g., toothbrush with a package of toothpaste) is being offered for free. |
| Sponsorships |
| Point-of-purchase—the manufacturer pays for extra display space in the store or puts a coupon right by the product |
| Other method of getting the consumer’s attention—all the Gap stores in France may benefit from the prominence of the new store located on the Champs-Elysees |
Promotional objectives. Promotional objectives involve the question of what the firm hopes to achieve with a campaign—"increasing profits" is too vague an objective, since this has to be achieved through some intermediate outcome (such as increasing market share, which in turn is achieved by some change in consumers which cause them to buy more). Some common objectives that firms may hold:
| Awareness. Many French consumers do not know that the Gap even exists, so they cannot decide to go shopping there. This objective is often achieved through advertising, but could also be achieved through favorable point-of-purchase displays. Note that since advertising and promotional stimuli are often afforded very little attention by consumers, potential buyers may have to be exposed to the promotional stimulus numerous times before it "registers." |
| Trial. Even when consumers know that a product exists and could possibly satisfy some of their desires, it may take a while before they get around to trying the product—especially when there are so many other products that compete for their attention and wallets. Thus, the next step is often to try get consumer to try the product at least once, with the hope that they will make repeat purchases. Coupons are often an effective way of achieving trial, but these are illegal in some countries and in some others, the infrastructure to readily accept coupons (e.g., clearing houses) does not exist. Continued advertising and point-of-purchase displays may be effective. Although Coca Cola is widely known in China, a large part of the population has not yet tried the product. |
| Attitude toward the product. A high percentage of people in the U.S. and Europe has tried Coca Cola, so a more reasonable objective is to get people to believe positive things about the product—e.g., that it has a superior taste and is better than generics or store brands. This is often achieved through advertising. |
| Temporary sales increases. For mature products and categories, attitudes may be fairly well established and not subject to cost-effective change. Thus, it may be more useful to work on getting temporary increases in sales (which are likely to go away the incentives are removed). In the U.S. and Japan, for example, fast food restaurants may run temporary price promotions to get people to eat out more or switch from competitors, but when these promotions end, sales are likely to move back down again (in developing countries, in contrast, trial may be a more appropriate objective in this category). |
Note that in new or emerging markets, the first objectives are more likely to be useful while, for established products, the latter objectives may be more useful in mature markets such as Japan, the U.S., and Western Europe.
Constraints on Global Communications Strategies. Although firms that seek standardized positions may seek globally unified campaigns, there are several constraints:
| Language barriers: The advertising will have to be translated, not just into the generic language category (e.g., Portuguese) but also into the specific version spoken in the region (e.g., Brazilian Portuguese). (Occasionally, foreign language ads are deliberately run to add mystique to a product, but this is the exception rather than the rule). |
| Cultural barriers. Subtle cultural differences may make an ad that tested well in one country unsuitable in another—e.g., an ad that featured a man walking in to join his wife in the bathroom was considered an inappropriate invasion in Japan. Symbolism often differs between cultures, and humor, which is based on the contrast to people’s experiences, tends not to travel well. Values also tend to differ between cultures—in the U.S. and Australia, excelling above the group is often desirable, while in Japan, "The nail that sticks out gets hammered down." In the U.S., "The early bird gets the worm" while in China "The first bird in the flock gets shot down." |
| Local attitudes toward advertising. People in some countries are more receptive to advertising than others. While advertising is accepted as a fact of life in the U.S., some Europeans find it too crass and commercial. |
| Media infrastructure. Cable TV is not well developed in some countries and regions, and not all media in all countries accept advertising. Consumer media habits also differ dramatically; newspapers appear to have a higher reach than television and radio in parts of Latin America. |
| Advertising regulations. Countries often have arbitrary rules on what can be advertised and what can be claimed. Comparative advertising is banned almost everywhere outside the U.S. Holland requires that a toothbrush be displayed in advertisements for sweets, and some countries require that advertising to be shown there be produced in the country. |
Some cultural dimensions:
| Directness vs. indirectness: U.S. advertising tends to emphasize directly why someone would benefit from buying the product. This, however, is considered too pushy for Japanese consumers, where it is felt to be arrogant of the seller to presume to know what the consumer would like. |
| Comparison: Comparative advertising is banned in most countries and would probably be very counterproductive, as an insulting instance of confrontation and bragging, in Asia even if it were allowed. In the U.S., comparison advertising has proven somewhat effective (although its implementation is tricky) as a way to persuade consumers what to buy. |
| Humor. Although humor is a relatively universal phenomenon, what is considered funny between countries differs greatly, so pre-testing is essential. |
| Gender roles. A study found that women in U.S. advertising tended to be shown in more traditional roles in the U.S. than in Europe or Australia. On the other hand, some countries are even more traditional—e.g., a Japanese ad that claimed a camera to be "so simple that even a woman can use it" was not found to be unusually insulting. |
| Explicitness. Europeans tend to allow for considerably more explicit advertisements, often with sexual overtones, than Americans. |
| Sophistication. Europeans, particularly the French, demand considerably more sophistication than Americans who may react more favorably to emotional appeals—e.g., an ad showing a mentally retarded young man succeeding in a job at McDonald’s was very favorably received in the U.S. but was booed at the Cannes film festival in France. |
| Popular vs. traditional culture. U.S. ads tend to employ contemporary, popular culture, often including current music while those in more traditional cultures tend to refer more to classical culture. |
| Information content vs. fluff. American ads contain a great deal of "puffery," which was found to be very ineffective in Eastern European countries because it resembled communist propaganda too much. The Eastern European consumers instead wanted hard, cold facts. |